the school age child
Thoughts on possibilities of improving Brain Function in the School Age child - by Buffy McClelland
There is evidence that all age and ability ranges of school age children could benefit from improved sensory integration and practice of body coordination, even though their movement already might seem to be coordinated. Improvements in literacy, numeracy and concentration have been reported. This page focuses on those with average or above average ability. For more information on children with special educational needs, please see the learning difficulties page, but read on here first!
Here are a few example studies on groups of children of a normal ability mix, carried out in the school classroom, which show that coordinated movement produces a considerably larger positive improvement in reading (for children aged 7 or over), when compared to regular physical exercise. For children under 7, evidence suggests that cross-lateral movements reaching from one side of the body to the other or eye tracking from side-to-side (which are used in many movement programmes) may be counterproductive, and care should be taken with young children.
Note that scientists now use a very simple way of comparing the effects of various programmes: this is called the "effect size", which does what it says, i.e. it tells you the size of the effect!
A programme with a "small" effect may well bring worthwhile benefits to society if used with large groups (e.g. the use of asprin for reduction in heart attacks in those classified as "at risk"; or if used with large numbers of children in schools) but a specific individual may not notice much effect, whereas a programme with a "large" effect is much more likely to contribute significantly to the personal wellbeing of most of the individuals who participate.
Non-aerobic coordinated movement programmes:
"Medium" and significant improvements in reading and memory for children of typical mixed ability range aged 9-10 with coordinated movement and sound stimulation. Zairi (2007). PhD study of 119 children in a UK Primary School aged 9-10 years, normal mix of abilities. Four groups took part in activities during Physical Education lessons, twice a week, 30 minutes per day, for eight months. One group followed the usual PE curriculum (CT), one group did more focused coordinated movements (CM), one group listened to a sound stimulation programme (SS), one group did focused coordinated movements AND the sound stimulation programme (CM+SS). Working memory and reading ability were assessed at the beginning and end of the programme. Zairi's results show significant improvements in memory and reading for the CM and CM+SS groups ("medium" effects), but only in reading for the SS group, compared with the CT group who did regular PE.
"Medium" and significant improvements in reading and mathematics for children of average ability aged 7-8 and 9-10 years with reflex inhibition programme. Jordan-Black (2005). Study of 683 children in a UK primary school, comparing control groups against experimental groups over a two year period. Jordan-Blacks results show significant improvements in reading and mathematics ("medium" effect), but only "small" positive effects in spelling, as a result of 10 minutes per day over one academic year of movements based upon primary infant reflexes, followed by a year of no intervention. This ensured that the experiment only tested benefits which were maintained for at least a year after the end of the programme.
"Large" and significant improvements in reading speed for children of average ability aged 8-9 years with proprietary coordinated movement programme. Walker (2008) PhD thesis study of two groups of US 3rd Grade children (34 in each group) compared the improvement in oral reading fluency, measured by the number of correct words read out loud in one minute. The children were of average ability. One group participated in daily movements from a proprietary system for two weeks, the other did not and acted as a control. Both groups started with the same reading speed of approximately 90 words per minute. The movement group's reading speed increased by 60%, while the control group's performance only improved by 14%. This effect was statistically significant and "large".
"Large" and significant deterioration of performance in reading for boys compared to girls of average ability aged 6 -7 yrs with a coordinated cross-lateral movement programme. Luppe (2007) Masters in Education thesis study of 41 children in a US 1st Grade classroom, comparing literacy performance of an experimental group carrying out cross-lateral movements daily for 4 weeks with a control group. Luppe's results show that literacy of all the girls improved during the study, and the girls who did cross-lateral movements and eye tracking improved more than the control group girls. BUT the boys in the experimental group hardly improved their literacy skills at all (some even deteriorated), whereas the control group boys improved as much as the control group girls. This was a "large" and significant effect.
Since boys' development typically lags behind girls by about a year at this age, this study supports other evidence that cross-lateral movements and side-side eye tracking is only helpful when a child is developmentally ready to do these movements and can make things worse if the child is not ready.
Overview of results from non-aerobic coordinated movements: these results listed above are just a few typical examples from many studies of the effect of non-aerobic coordinated movements on literacy and numeracy. Effect sizes are usually medium to large. It is fascinating that effect sizes determined from phonics programmes, which are the currently most popular method used to boost reading in UK schools, are only "medium", this was the conclusion of a national panel set up by the US Congress to assess the best way of improving reading in US schools
Effects of Physical exercise and music performance.
"Small" but significant improvement in reading, maths and writing for children regularly playing the violin. Wallick (1998). This study of two groups of 148 students, matched for equal verbal IQ, aged 9-10 yrs, demonstrated that those who took part in practice of the violin for two 30 minute sessions per week, and missed regular lessons during this time, had significantly higher reading, maths, writing and "citizenship" scores than their peers, although all of the effects were "small".
"Small" but significant improvements in academic achievement from standard physical fitness regimes. Etnier et al (1997) report their review of 134 studies of academic performance versus participation in physical fitness programmes and conclude the effect is statistically "small".
Improvements in academic achievement with exercise programmes NOT due to improved cardiovascular fitness! Etnier et al (2006) reviewed 37 studies of the effects of physical exercise programmes on cognition. They concluded that there was NO relationship between cardiovascular fitness and cognition improvements, and that some other mechanism must be at work to bring about improvements in cognition by physical exercise regimes.
Overview of results from physical exercise and music performance: The effects of these programmes is considerably less than controlled coordinated but non-aerobic movement programmes. Learning to control movements by conscious thought, and the specific movement skills used in these programmes may well be the key.
Scientific studies quoted above:
Ehri, L.C., Simone R. Nunes, Steven A. Stahl and Dale M. Willows, 2001. Systematic Phonics Instruction Helps Students Learn to Read: Evidence from the National Reading Panel's meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research. 71, 393-447.
Etnier, J.L., Salazar, W., Landers, D.M., Petruzzello, S.J., Han, M., Nowell, P., 1997. The influence of physical fitness and exercise upon cognitive functioning: a meta-analysis. J. Sport Exerc. Psychol. 19 (3), 249–277.
Etnier, J.L., Nowell, P.M., Landers, D.M. and Sibley, B.A., 2006. A meta-regression to examine the relationship between aerobic fitness and cognitive performance. Brain Research Reviews, 52, 119-130.
Jordan-Black, J.-A., 2005. The effects of the Primary Movement programme on the academic performance of children attending ordinary primary school. Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs, 5(3), 101–111.
Luppe, K.S., 2007. The effects of Movement on Literacy. Master of Early Childhood Education thesis, East Tennessee State University, USA.
Spielmann, C., 2005. The Effects of Movement Based Learning on Student Achievement in the Elementary School Classroom. Masters in Education Thesis. Black Hills State University, USA.
Wallick, Michael D. 1998. A comparison study of the Ohio proficiency test results between 9 and 10 year old students learning to play musical instruments outside of class and those of matched ability. Journal of Research in Music Education, 46 (2), 239-247.
Zairi, A., 2007. Raising children's learning and performance: a study in a large UK school. PhD Thesis, Liverpool John Moores University.
Text and Layout, Copyright © Dr Buffy McClelland, 2010. All rights reserved.